A Global Roadmap towards inclusive Human Security

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Abstract

A common vision of security for all is indispensable for the future of humanity and the biosphere. Recovering from COVID-19, addressing the perils of climate change, and responding to the range of conflicts, risks and vulnerabilities the world now faces, requires a vision of security that is holistic and cooperative, and a strategy that is integrated and scalable. Such a vision is at the heart of an approach to security first imagined by the UN in the early 1990s: Human Security. This approach embodies an integrated strategy of security that is designed to respond flexibly and effectively to the overlapping and interconnected human and environmental precarities that affect our world today. Responding to vital challenges, it seeks to strategically address the security, health and wellbeing of humanity systematically and holistically whilst simultaneously ensuring the security, stability and sustainability of planet Earth. Emphasizing that all academic disciplines can contribute to Human Security, this paper is intended to highlight the importance and potential of Human Security in policy and practice.

1. Human Security for All: An Introduction

A peaceful and sustainable world requires more than securing national borders or enacting narrow military or economic models of security that fail to consider the intersecting human and environmental insecurities and inequalities across our planet. As such, current approaches and policies towards security need significant and urgent reform. ‘Human Security’ is an approach to ‘global security’ that encapsulates a shared vision for ensuring ‘security for all’. It formulates and embodies holistic and cooperative security strategies to address the overlapping human and environmental precarities the world faces today. Human Security centers on people and elaborates on what it means for us to be safe and secure. It also emphasizes public participation through empowering people to make choices that will ensure their safety, security and resilience in the face of current and future risks. Human Security of individuals and national security are mutually reinforcing.

The concept of Human Security was first set forth in the United Nations Development Program’s (UNDP) Human Development Report (HDR) in 1994, and most recently updated in 2022 by the UNDP Special Report ‘New Threats to Human Security in the Anthropocene’.¹ The UN Trust Fund for Human Security (UNTFHS) was established in 1999 to bring diverse partners together to collaborate with governments in addressing the vulnerabilities and Human Security needs of local communities. The UNTFHS has supported over 220 programs that apply the Human Security approach successfully in more than 90 countries.*

According to the UNDP HDR, Human Security encompasses the core human concerns of “freedom from fear” and “freedom from want”.² It is concerned with “safety from such chronic threats as hunger, disease, and repression”, and “protection from sudden and hurtful disruptions in the patterns of daily life—whether in homes, in jobs or in communities”. Its importance has been renewed in new debates about the future course of humanity and the planet, especially in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, amidst ongoing climate action initiatives, and in the context of enduring and emerging geopolitical tensions and conflicts across the world. The Human Security approach emphasizes systematic interventionist and governance strategies of prevention, protection and empowerment that are people-centered, environmentally sensitive and context-specific. Accordingly, it offers governments and international organizations a valuable tool for tackling today’s interconnected threats and addressing their root causes before they evolve into large-scale humanitarian, economic or environmental crises.

The concept of Human Security complements and enhances Human Development, which manifests at the national or macro level by focusing on the wellbeing of individuals, extending its scope beyond physical violence and destruction.³ It broadens and personalizes the term ‘security’, making it relevant to all forms of threats affecting the wellbeing of every person on the planet, rather than focusing on war and violence. National policies and international cooperation through diplomacy are, more than ever, material in ensuring global security and thus Human Security. Having said that, it does not replace state security but complements it, strengthening human development and enhancing human rights.⁴ Insofar as Human Security is adopted as a policy framework, it enables states and international actors to respond more comprehensively to threats, reducing conflict and enhancing cooperative security, both nationally and internationally.⁵

Diplomacy in the 21^st century tangibly contributes to bolstering Human Security through inter alia, restoring nuclear weapons arms control agreements, controlling threats from emerging technologies, achieving international treaties on climate change, biodiversity and pandemics. Human Security is not just focused on human concerns in isolation; it also considers its connection to our biosphere. It is a well-defined and proven concept that can be vigorously operationalized to help address fundamental issues related to sustainable development.

2. Dimensions of Human Security

Human Security encompasses all the major aspects of social life that directly impact on the wellbeing of people. The original UN list included seven dimensions:

1. Economic Security: an assured basic income and livelihood from paid work, public and environmental resources, underpinned by appropriately inclusive social security systems that also address the needs of precarious and atypical workers.
2. Food Security: physical and affordable access to adequate, safe, nutritious and culturally appropriate food for an active and healthy life.
3. Health Security: access to affordable healthcare, including prevention and protection against infectious diseases and sexual and reproductive healthcare.
4. Environmental Security: a healthy biosphere to support all forms of life on Earth, safety from natural and human-induced disasters, as well as from resource scarcity due to environmental degradation. Environmental sustainability and human security are closely linked. The human security approach involves integrated, holistic strategies to manage effectively and responsibly complex social, economic, and environmental interactions across the planet.
5. Personal Security: physical safety from violent conflict, human rights abuses, domestic violence, crime, and child abuse and neglect.
6. Community Security: preservation of culture and identity, and safety from exclusion, discrimination and ethnic conflict.
7. Political Security: freedom from state oppression, persecution, torture and other human rights violations, and protection of the right to citizenship and of the right to seek asylum.

In recent years, concerns about Human Security have been renewed in the face of several global threats. First, human and environmental security challenges in the Anthropocene are increasingly marked by ecological challenges linked, for example, with climate change and biodiversity decline.⁶ Second, cybersecurity threats accompanying technological advancements have serious implications for Human Security. For example, the use of digital knowledge platforms and generative artificial intelligence (AI) in the production of fake news and wider Human Security concerns in the digital realm has become increasingly common, requiring further systematic analysis. Furthermore, different forms of organized crime compromise not only the security of individuals and their communities but also the survival of consolidated democracies or those in the process of consolidation.

Finally, the expansion of authoritarian rule is likely to stifle democratic participation, decision-making and empowerment of people. This is where advancing Human Security becomes vital. For instance, while cybersecurity and related laws protect the functioning of information networks crucial to human wellbeing, they can be ill-designed to suppress freedom of expression and curtail the flow of information.⁷ Thus, Human Security encompasses a broad spectrum of interrelated and overlapping human and environmental risks and vulnerabilities, which require a broad understanding and an integrated strategy to address their root causes everywhere.

3. Human Security and the SDGs

The holistic dimensions of Human Security are especially useful in addressing the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development. Utilizing Human Security concepts as an analytical lens can also alleviate the neglect of marginalized people and communities from developmental policies at the national level within the SDG context.⁸ By placing all people’s needs and capabilities at its epicenter, the Human Security approach and the initiatives that underpin it, are a conduit for the promotion of sustainable development and, hence, the SDGs. Rather than representing alternative approaches to sustainable development, Human Security and the SDG framework are mutually reinforcing.⁹ Alongside these approaches, all dimensions of Human Security must also comply with the principles and conventions set out in successive editions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Human security and the SDGs are fundamentally interconnected through Agenda 2030’s focus on protecting individuals and societies from diverse threats. The UNTFHS positions Human Security as central to achieving the SDGs by prioritizing individual needs, while research demonstrates their mutual reinforcement in promoting global wellbeing and sustainable development.¹⁰ Key alignments include poverty reduction (SDG1), hunger (SDG2), health (SDG3), and environmental protection (SDGs 13-15) with Human Security dimensions, plus economic security links to employment, innovation, and equality goals (SDGs 8-10). Recent crises like COVID-19 and energy shortages highlight these connections, emphasizing the need for integrated policy approaches.

While synergies between the two frameworks exist, SDGs typically target national and regional governments, potentially excluding marginalized communities due to established power dynamics and weak institutional capacity.¹¹ Applying a human security lens can bridge this gap by combining grassroots initiatives with government policies, improving implementation effectiveness while upholding the “leave no one behind” commitment.¹² This integrated approach enables individuals and communities to actively engage in sustainable development efforts.¹³ Building on this framework, our study introduces a methodology that systematically connects Human Security elements to specific SDGs, ensuring that issues and achievements documented in Human Security reports are properly aligned with sustainability planning.

Koundouri et al. introduce a machine learning (ML) based approach to integrate the concepts of Human Security and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), offering a structured way to analyze their complex relationship.¹⁴ They use 44 policy documents related to Human Security and its dimensions to measure the association with the 17 SDGs using a machine learning algorithm that works by building many “decision trees” and combining their results to make a more accurate prediction.† The method uses keywords associated with the 169 SDG targets whose frequencies in a document are compared against dynamically calculated thresholds to assign a relevance SDG score. The findings strongly support the pronounced connection between Human Security aspects and the SDGs and highlight that distinct concepts within each SDG are highly interconnected, and progress in one area (e.g., poverty reduction, health) influences and is influenced by others (e.g., climate action, social equity). This reinforces the need for holistic, integrated solutions integrating the two frameworks. The tool offers a data-driven method for prioritizing initiatives within the SDG framework. It helps policymakers map Human Security policies to SDG priorities, identify areas needing more focus, and develop integrated policies addressing root causes of insecurity (e.g., conflict prevention, climate resilience, social protection).

4. Characteristics of the Human Security Approach

The Human Security approach has achieved impressive results when applied. However, it has the potential to do more. The Human Security approach is based on protection and empowerment policies and solutions that are people-centered, comprehensive, context-specific and prevention-oriented, summarized in the following five key tenets.

4.1. People-centered Priority

In promoting cooperation and a common security vision in effective global governance, Human Security adopts a people-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of understanding local perceptions of precarity and security and aims to scale these contextualized responses within an overarching vision of ‘Human Security for All’. Addressing security at the individual level requires modifying existing approaches to better meet the needs of communities. Moreover, Human Security is a universally understandable and appealing objective, accessible to everyone regardless of education or familiarity with complex issues like climate change or emerging infectious diseases. Thus, framing support for the 17 SDGs in terms of Human Security offers the opportunity for a deeper resonance with the public, increasing the social support crucial for mobilizing local and global actions.

4.2. Environmental Sensitivity

The core existential challenges of our contemporary world, such as maintaining a stable climate and a healthy biosphere on land and in the oceans, halting biodiversity decline, and safeguarding against disease and pandemics, cannot be effectively addressed without a governance strategy that is environmentally sensitive to an array of ecological challenges, and tackles the root causes of the interlinked climate and nature crises. From its inception, the Human Security concept has framed environmental security as maintaining the integrity and long-term resilience and stability of the living systems on which humanity depends and with which it is inextricably linked.¹⁵ This requires holistic planning, regulation and governance, for example, through One Health or Planetary Health approaches.

4.3. Integration

The Human Security perspective highlights the fact that all the issues covered by the 17 SDGs are interrelated and interdependent, and that the complexity of their interlinkages undermines piecemeal efforts to address them separately. The Human Security approach views all the dimensions from a common focal point, i.e., their impact on the health, welfare and wellbeing of individuals and communities. Human Security offers an integrated approach to global governance that can overcome the inefficiencies of working in silos, and in addition, pays close attention to scale in tailoring implementation strategies.

4.4. Context and scale

None of the issues humanity faces can effectively be addressed without studying and fine-tuning broad-based responses to the myriad variations in contexts that distinguish conditions in and among different communities, at different levels in a variety of places and with varied social and cultural backgrounds. Human Security emphasizes the need to coordinate research and policymaking at the national, regional and global levels with complementary bottom-up approaches at the level of local communities and of individual behaviour. This scalar sensitivity enables the necessary combination of micro- and macro-level practices that allow implementation of the widest set of effective measures.

4.5. Empowerment

Empowerment refers to the process by which people gain control over the factors and decisions that shape their lives. It is the process by which they increase their assets and attributes and build capacities to gain access, partners, networks and/or a voice, to improve their agency. It is not merely a program carried out by governments. Governments have a key role to play, but unless society understands, endorses and supports the efforts of policymakers, the process will be very slow, scattered and incomplete. Empowerment requires the awareness, awakening, commitment and efforts of people and organizations in every sector and at all levels of society, and their active demand for change to governments when necessary.

4.6. Public Communications

Efforts to achieve the SDGs are largely centered around elite groups in government, education, research and business. It is imperative to reach out to the general public with language and messaging that is relevant to their needs and incorporate their views and demands. Mobilizing broad public support and engagement warrants messaging that speaks to all humanity and the co-creation of solutions to local challenges.

5. Policy Recommendations

Promoting the Human Security approach is conditional on bold policy initiatives being implemented across a wide spectrum of institutions.

5.1. Universal Income Sufficiency

The Human Security approach must recognize the fundamental role of poverty and inequality as drivers of insecurity and instability. Securing decent universal basic incomes ensures economic stabilization and societal integration. There is ample evidence of economic, health and productivity benefits when sufficient levels of income are guaranteed through private or public investment. Ensuring a basic income is also a clear pathway to solving the pressing problem of extreme poverty and to meeting several interconnected SDGs. Having said that, modern, inclusive social security systems can play a crucial role in realizing the vision of a universal basic income, particularly by addressing the needs of precarious and atypical workers. Well-designed social security systems (including universal healthcare) can ensure that all individuals, regardless of their employment status, have access to a basic level of financial security. For precarious and atypical workers, who often fall outside the scope of conventional social insurance schemes, a social security system underpinned by universal income sufficiency can bridge gaps in coverage by providing a universal safety net that is not tied to employment. This ensures that workers in gig economies, part-time jobs and freelance work receive consistent support.

Notwithstanding the benefits of universal income, it is pivotal to underline that social inequalities are not limited to income and wealth but are also tied to gender, race, ethnicity and power hierarchies.

5.2. Global Health

Since the beginning of the 21^st Century, the concept of ‘Global Health’ has gained increasing relevance and recognition as a discipline. Education and research in Global Health must be promoted and strengthened, including through regional cooperation, as a response to common challenges, based on our national particularities and with a deep respect for the idiosyncrasies and identities of our peoples. These ideas are oriented to the development of knowledge in the scientific field, which can be used subsequently to inform those responsible for formulating public policies at the country level and the organizations responsible for international health governance. A common global governance needs to be developed to examine both known and emerging challenges, especially in the context of this post-COVID-19 pandemic period. Such governance should extend to areas like ‘One Health’, infectious disease, antimicrobial resistance, mental health, sexual and reproductive health and other relevant aspects of public health.

5.3. Education

Effective education in all fields and at all levels should be integrated into the principles of Human Security. The aim of SDG 4 is to ensure, by 2030, an inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. All learners are to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development.

Emphasis should be placed on promoting value-based education, whereby the educational process emphasizes the values and sense of social responsibility required for an individual (or community) to participate constructively in global society. Furthermore, academic knowledge cannot be separated from social responsibility for how that knowledge is shared, utilized or applied.

5.4. Technology

Technology has enormous potential for enhancing Human Security in all fields. Research indicates that 20 percent of the shortfall in funding and performance on implementation of the SDGs can be achieved by improving internet connectivity and the flow of information. Almost another 20 percent of technology transfer occurs between regions in the same country and also across different sectors of the economy.¹⁶

Advances in digital technology also dictate that the convergence of Human Security and cybersecurity becomes a critical focal point. The widespread nature of AI-based systems, and particularly generative AI, presents additional challenges regarding Human Security. As well as considering cybersecurity to protect national and commercial interests, for example, the need to protect individuals from cyber threats is undeniably an integral aspect of ensuring their safety, privacy and overall wellbeing. The increasing application of digital technologies in commerce, governance, and social life may lead to digital inequality and concentrated digital power, thereby posing significant threats to human security.

5.5. Business & Finance

Businesses today must prioritize a balance between private profit and social welfare, fostering collaboration for a sustainable future. This approach requires aligning corporate values with the wellbeing of all stakeholders, not just shareholders, including employees, customers, communities, and the environment. Emphasis should shift from short-term profits to strategies that meet evolving social needs and opportunities, especially as corporate influence over local institutions grows, notably in the Global South, and recently in the Global North. Here, corporate activities like land-grabbing and lax environmental standards threaten community and environmental security, issues that can be addressed within a Human Security framework. Key players in the high-technology sector (“tech giants”) are gaining economic power and influence, enhancing their role in policy making even at the highest level.¹⁷ The Human Security framework needs to highlight the implications for cybersecurity but also for political and community security stemming from this issue.

Furthermore, recent efforts towards the development of a fairer corporate tax system at the global level, particularly for multinational corporations, should be strengthened in line with economic and political security considerations. Profit is a derivative and necessary condition for private enterprises to thrive, but should not be their singular purpose.¹⁸ Regulations and safeguards ensuring it does not go against human or planetary wellbeing are in line with a Human Security approach to business.

In the realm of global finance, the overlapping and competing demands for global funding are scaled and complex, while the blurring of public institutions with entrenched private interests is raising concerns. Addressing these challenges will require significant reallocation of global investment capital and the alignment of a broad set of stakeholders in the financial and global economic system. A paradigm shift is warranted, whereby innovative financial mechanisms focusing on redistribution and alignment with sustainability targets become widespread. The role of all stakeholders of the international financial system through anti-corruption and anti-money laundering measures is material in this cause.¹⁹

5.6. Science, Arts and Communication

The applications of basic sciences are vital for increasing societal wellbeing through improved collaboration toward the SDGs. Moreover, the search for knowledge beyond immediate practical application is essential for the flourishing of human experience.²⁰ Basic science education to meet real-world needs should be based primarily on collaboration with other sciences and humanities disciplines to identify and fully understand the unmet social needs and challenges that will emerge in the coming decades. Effective public scholarship and civic engagement with the arts, humanities and social sciences, including music, visual arts, cinema and literature, can become powerful tools and are therefore indispensable for informing, educating and motivating people about Human Security needs and opportunities.

In addition, urgent steps are needed to enhance the reliability of reporting through mass media and to alert the public to the dangers of erroneous or intentional misinformation substituting for factual content.

5.7. Research Institutes

Scientific and research institutions should adopt a people-centered approach for identifying and analyzing global security concerns. For example, extreme weather events and other environmental challenges should be studied and analyzed in terms of their impact on people. Research visions should support multidisciplinary approaches to security challenges that encompass all relevant dimensions of Human Security across all fields of scientific and social scientific knowledge. To this end, such visions need to contemplate all the types of resources, including inter alia skills development, formal education, technological innovation, environmental regulation, labor regulation and financial sector reform.

6. Conclusion

In this paper, we aimed to illuminate the vital relevance and usefulness of Human Security, in policy and practice, in safeguarding the future of life on Earth as we know it. Addressing global security concerns, from climate change to health security, has never been more important, and governments everywhere will need to respond to a wide range of transnational risks and vulnerabilities that require a vision of security that is holistic and cooperative, integrated and scalable. Such a vision is at the heart of Human Security, which offers an integrated strategy of global governance that is designed to respond flexibly and effectively to the overlapping and interconnected human and environmental precarities that affect our world today.

The enduring challenges of effective global governance were laid bare during the COVID-19 pandemic, which illuminated the urgency of integrated global security cooperation. Key to promoting global governance of Human Security is holding governments accountable for adhering to global conventions such as the Paris Climate Agreement, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, and other international agreements. The Human Security vision for global governance insists upon governing responsibly in line with a wider objective of human and environmental wellbeing and advocates a more environmentally sensitive model of economic growth that recognizes that the unregulated expansion of the economy is incompatible with sustaining the health and wellbeing of our ecosystems worldwide.‡

Human Security, as a paradigm of intervening and responding to the wide range of security concerns across the planet, recognizes that governments are best placed in terms of resources, administration and regulatory powers to tackle the overlapping human-environmental crises of the Anthropocene. Human Security is a proven concept that can be vigorously operationalized to advance the sustainable development of the planet by enacting effective, holistic and cooperative strategies. It is an approach to a global sense of security that emphasizes systematic and scalable governance strategies of prevention, protection and empowerment, which are people-centered, environmentally sensitive and context-specific. It offers governments and international organizations a vital tool for tackling today’s interconnected threats, risks and vulnerabilities across the globe.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the following contributors for their constructive contributions to the article:

Sergio Adorno – University of Sao Paulo, Brazil

Neela Badrie – University of West Indies, St. Augustine Campus; Fellow, Caribbean Academy of Sciences (CAS), Trinidad and Tobago

Ximena Cadima Fuentes – Programa Agrobiodiversidad, Fundación PROINPA, Cochabamba, Bolivia

Sandra Myrna Díaz – Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV), CONICET, and Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina

Cynthia Farid – Global Academic Fellow, University of Hong Kong (Faculty of Law)/ Advocate, Supreme Court of Bangladesh, Bangladesh

Isobel Frye – Academy of Science of South Africa, and Social Policy Initiative, South Africa

Amel Hamza-Chaffai – Beit Al Hikma Tunisian Academy of Sciences Arts and Letters, Sfax University, Tunisia

Jorge Las Heras – Member, Chilean Academy of Medicine, Institute of Chile, Chile

Atsushi Ishida – Tokyo University, Japan

Jing Lin – University of Maryland

Peter F. McGrath – InterAcademy Partnership

Miodrag Mihaljević – Research Professor, Mathematical Institute of SASA, Belgrade; Member, Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SASA), Serbia

John Morrissey – University of Galway, Ireland

David Ofori-Adjei – University of Ghana, Ghana

Thomas Schinko – International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Austria

Mitchell Smith – Director, NSW Refugee Health Service, Australia

Ketan Patel – Chairman, Force for Good.

Garry Jacobs – President, World Academy of Art and Science

Notes

1. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report 1994: New Dimensions of Human Security (New York: UNDP, 1994), https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-1994; United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), New Threats to Human Security in the Anthropocene: Demanding Greater Solidarity (New York: UNDP, 2022), https://hdr.undp.org/content/2022-special-report-human-security.
2. UNDP, Human Development Report 1994.
3. Des Gasper, “Securing Humanity: Situating ‘Human Security’ as Concept and Discourse,” Journal of Human Development 6, no. 2 (2005): 221–45.
4. Sadako Ogata and Johan Cels, “Human Security: Protecting and Empowering the People,” Global Governance 9 (2003): 273–82.
5. Cecilia C. Muguruza, “Human Security as a Policy Framework: Critics and Challenges,” Anuario de Acción Humanitaria y Derechos Humanos 4 (2007): 15–35.
6. John Morrissey, “Planetary Precarity and ‘More-Than-Human Security’: The Securitization Challenge in the Aftermath of COVID-19,” Journal of Human Security 17, no. 1 (2021): 15–22; United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report 2020: The Next Frontier—Human Development and the Anthropocene (New York: UNDP, 2020), https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2020; United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report 2021/2022: Uncertain Times, Unsettled Lives—Shaping Our Future in a Transforming World (New York: UNDP, 2022), https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2021-22.
7. Carly Nyst and Tim Falchetta, “The Right to Privacy in the Digital Age,” Journal of Human Rights Practice 9, no. 1 (2017): 104–18.
8. Des Gasper and Oscar A. Gómez, “Evolution of Thinking and Research on Human Security and Personal Security 1994–2013,” in Safeguarding Human Progress: Reducing Vulnerabilities, Building Resilience, ed. Khalid Malik (New York: UNDP, 2014), 365–401, http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/evolution-thinking-and-research-human-and-personal-security-1994-2013.
9. Andrew Crabtree and Des Gasper, “Conclusion: The Sustainable Development Goals and Capability and Human Security Analysis,” in Sustainability, Capabilities, and Human Security, ed. Des Gasper (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020).
10. United Nations Trust Fund for Human Security (UNTFHS), Human Security and Agenda 2030 (New York: United Nations, 2017); Crabtree and Gasper, “Conclusion.”
11. Gasper and Gómez, “Evolution of Thinking.”
12. Des Gasper et al., Adding Human Security and Human Resilience to Help Advance the SDGs Agenda, ISS Working Paper Series no. 665 (The Hague: ISS, 2020).
13. Mary Martin and Taylor Owen, eds., Routledge Handbook of Human Security (London: Routledge, 2014).
14. Phoebe Koundouri et al., “Mapping Human Security Strategies to Sustainable Development Goals: A Machine Learning Approach,” Discover Sustainability 6, no. 1 (2025): 96.
15. IPBES, Summary for Policymakers of the Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (Bonn: IPBES Secretariat, 2019), https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3553579; Hans-Otto Pörtner et al., Scientific Outcome of the IPBES-IPCC Co-Sponsored Workshop on Biodiversity and Climate Change (Bonn: IPBES Secretariat, 2021), https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4659158.
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17. AAAS and The Royal Society, Science Diplomacy in an Era of Disruption (London: The Royal Society, 2025), https://royalsociety.org/about-us/what-we-do/international/science-diplomacy/.
18. Colin Mayer, Prosperity: Better Business Makes the Greater Good (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018).
19. Force for Good, Capital as a Force for Good (London: Force for Good, 2022), https://www.forcegood.org/report-2022.
20. Nuccio Ordine, The Usefulness of the Useless (New York: Paul Dry Books, 2017).